The Nature of Methodology
When we talk about specific methodology, we mean all language aspects from reading complex articles to making a presentation. Hutchinson and Waters (1987) claimed that there is no specific methodology for ESP. The same principles apply with ELT methodology in general. It can be arguable whether there is a specific methodology for ESP. He experienced is that knowing General English methodology does not make a teacher successful in techniques that the teacher implements in the classroom. For example; if the teacher is not familiar with such specific subject matter as the blast furnace or power station, he won’t be able to want to prepare his own material for this matter. It is not always possible to find what material you want to use during the course in the course book. In ESP courses, the teacher has to put more effort than General English courses.
Dudley Evans and St John (1998) claimed that strength of methodology is the way in which language learning and subject learning approaches can be integrated. They proposed two approaches: case studies and project work. They have stated that case studies integrate knowledge, skills, theory and any experience, especially in law, medicine, engineering and business. The only issue with case studies is the knowledge of the ESP teacher in the subject that he/she teaches. ESP teacher should work with the subject teacher if he/she doesn’t have a subject background. In project work, unlike case studies, students find and stimulate the information. Motivation is higher. Dudley-Evans and St John points out that project work starts in the classroom and moves outside the classroom. There are five main stages have identified of development which are commonly known as: Behaviourism, Mentalism, Cognitive Code, The Affective Factor, Learning and Acquisition.
·         Behaviorism: Learning as habit formation
Pavlov and Skinner Learning is a mechanic process of habit formation and proceeds by means of the frequent reinforcements of a stimulus-response sequence. It provided the theoretical underpinning of the widely used Audio lingual Method.
·         Mentalism: Thinking as rule-governed activity
According to Noam Chomsky (1964) as cited in (Hutchinson and Walter, 1987), language is not a form of behavior, rather it is an intricate rule-based system and a large part of language acquisition is the learning of this system. He argues that thinking is rule-governed.
·         Cognitive Code: Learners as thinking beings
According to the cognitive theory, learning is a process in which the learner actively tries to make sense of data. This theory treats the learners as thinking beings and puts them firmly at the center of the learning process, by stressing that learning will only take place when the matter to be learnt is meaningful to the learners.
·         The Affective Factor: Learners as emotional beings
People think, but they also have feelings. It is as if we believed that human beings always act in logical and sensible manner. The importance of the emotional factor is easily seen if we consider the relationship between the cognitive and affective aspects of the learners. The cognitive factor presupposes the affective factors of motivation. The emotional reaction to the learning experience is the essential foundation for the initiation of cognitive process.
·            Language and Acquisition
Learning is seen as a conscious process, while acquisition proceeds unconsciously. The Acquisition-Learning distinction is the most fundamental of all the hypotheses in Krashen's theory and the most widely known among linguists and language practitioners.

Basic Principles of Language Learning
There are 8 basic principles of language learning in which will underpin a learning-centered research methodology:

1.      Second language learning is a developmental process
Learner uses their existing knowledge to make the new information comprehensible. The learner’s existing state of knowledge is, therefore, a vital element in the success or failure of learning, and the good teacher will consequently try to establish and exploit what the learner already know.
2.      Language learning is an active process
It’s not enough for learners to only have the necessary knowledge to make things meaningful, but they must also use that knowledge. Teachers have to make a distinction between two types of activity:
a.       Psycho-motor activity, that is, the observable movement of speech organ or limbs in accordance with the signals from the brain.
b.      Language processing activity, that is, the organization of information into a meaningful network of knowledge. This kind of activity is internal and not observable.
This means that ‘activity’ should not be judged in terms of how much learners say or write, but in terms of how much the learners have to think – to use their cognitive capacities and knowledge of the world to make sense of the flow of new information.
3.      Language learning is a decision-making process
In the traditional classroom the teacher made all the decisions to avoid all possibilities of error. Teacher can’t make decisions without taking risks and taking risks makes errors possible or even likely. But the process of developing and using a network of knowledge relies upon a train of learner decisions. Learner must be decision maker.
4.      Language learning is not just a matter of linguistic knowledge
The most fundamental problem of second language learning is the mismatch between the learners’ conceptual/cognitive capacities and the learner’s linguistic level. The learners’ knowledge of their subject may be of a very high level, while their linguistic knowledge is virtually nil. Teaching must respect both levels of the learners.
5.      Language learning is not the learners’ first experience with language
Every second language learner is already communicatively competent in one language. They know what communication is and how it is used. Learners’ knowledge of communication should be actively exploited in second language learning, for example, by getting students to predict, before reading or listening.
6.      Learning is an emotional experience
Teachers should develop the positive emotions as opposed to the negative ones, for examples:
-        Using pair and group work to build on existing social relationship
-        Giving students time to think and generally avoiding undue pressure
-        Putting less emphasis on the product and more on the process of getting an answer
-        Valuing attitude as much as aptitude and ability
-        Making ‘interest’, ‘fun’, ‘variety’ primary consideration in materials and methodology, rather than just added extras
7.      Language learning is to a large extent incidental
Teachers don’t have to be working with language problems in order to learn language. Teachers can learn a language incidentally, while teachers are actually thinking about something else. The important point is that the problems should oblige the learner to use language and thereby to fix the language into the matrix of knowledge in their minds.
8.      Language learning is not systematic
Teachers learn by systematizing knowledge, the process itself is not systematic. Laying out information in a systematic way will not guarantee learning.


Model Lesson
Model lesson is used to show how the principles of language learning can be realized in the ESP classroom.  There are three model lessons that can used in ESP class:
Model lesson 1
Ø  Materials of the model
For the materials can be divided into two worksheets.  They are worksheet 1 and 2. In worksheet 1, teacher has to strip cartoon with bubbles blanked out and Worksheet 2 uses bubble texts to complete the blank bubbles in Worksheet 1.
Ø  Audience of the model
The audience of this model can be engineering or general technical students in intermediate level.
Ø  Procedure of the model
There are five procedures in this model. They are Starter, Analysis, Prediction, Matching, and Follow Up activity. In the process of starting, teacher should build stimulation based on the material that being taught by giving problems in the form of cases to the students. Then students come to the analysis process by answering the probing questions from the teacher to get as much information as possible. After that, the students start to make a prediction of dialogue will be based on the facts and their knowledge. Then students have to match the blank bubbles with the bubble texts in worksheet 2 and check their work with the recording that had been provided by the teacher. These procedures can be applied in many possible ways by doing follow up.
Model lesson 2
Ø  Materials of the model
For the materials can be divided into four worksheets. They are worksheet 1, 2, 3, and feedback worksheet.
Ø  Audience of the model
The audience of this model can be business or secretarial students in upper intermediate / advanced level. 
Ø  Procedure of the model
There are four procedures in this model. They are Gathering information, Sharing information, Feedback, and Follow up activity. In the process of gathering information, teacher should divide the students into several groups and then give one of the worksheet 1, 2, or 3 to each group. Then the students have to make a note of information. In sharing information the teacher should make a new group that consist of member in the old group at least one person. So they can complete each other and share new information. Then they have to complete the fill gaps using their notes. After that, the teacher should give feedback by comparing other group version because it can be more than one answer. These procedures can also be applied in many possible ways by doing follow up.
Model lesson 3
Ø  Materials of the model
For the materials can be divided into two worksheets. They are worksheet 1 and 2. In worksheet 1, the teacher use tape recorder to play the conversation and in the worksheet 2 teacher tell the students to make conversation dialogue.
Ø  Audience of the model
The audience of this model can be hotel and tourist students in lower intermediate.
Ø  Procedure of the model
There are three procedures in this model. They are Prediction, Reconstruction, and Practice. In the process of prediction, teacher should play the recording of the first line conversation and then give the students a chance to predict what the conversation talks about. Then play the full recording to check student’s prediction and difficult vocabulary. After that, in reconstruction, the teacher divides the students into pairs and gives a cut up dialogue to each pair. Here the students should arrange the dialogue into a correct one and the teacher help them by giving suggestion. After that the teacher plays the recording to check student’s answer and students repeat the recording together. The next procedure is practicing. Here the teacher tells the students to write a conversation and read it in front of the class while the rest students have to make a note of the important information from the conversation. Then the teacher tells all of the students to make a conversation based on the information that they get.
Analysis
There are a number of simple techniques that can be applied to almost any lesson:
1.      Gaps. Learning demands thinking and gaps create that demand. There are some types of gap, namely:
a.       Information gaps are the situation where one learner has information, in the other hand another does not. Here, communicating and sharing the knowledge is needed.
b.      Media gaps are the situation where the information is available in one medium and needs to be transferred to another medium. For example, read: make notes: discussing using notes: complete gapped text.
c.       Reasoning gaps are the situation where some clues and pieces of evidence are available, but the answer needs to be extrapolated.
d.      Memory gaps are the situation where the learners have received some information at one stage of the lesson, and then they should use their memories to reconstruct the information itself.
e.       Jigsaw gaps are the situation where all parts are there, but they need to be put together to form a complete unit.
f.        Opinion gaps are the situation where one has different opinion with the other, for example about “What is important?”, “What is not?”, “What is relevant?” and so on.
g.      Certainty gaps are what is definitely known? What can be presupposed? What can be predicted? What is completely unavailable? And so on.
2.      Variety. In order to get the repetition necessary to help learning, there must be variety to keep the mind alert. There are some ways to achieve variety:
a.       Variety of medium, such as: text, tape, picture, speech, etc
b.      Variety of classroom organization, such as: whole class, pair, individual, group, etc
c.       Variety of learner roles, such as: presenter, evaluator, receiver, thinker, negotiator, etc
d.      Variety of exercise: activity or task
e.       Variety of skills, such as: reading, listening, speaking, writing, graphic skills, etc
f.        Variety of topic
g.      Variety of focus, such as: accuracy, fluency, discourse, structure, pronunciation, etc
3.      Prediction. Prediction is a matter of using an existing knowledge of a pattern or system in order to anticipate what is likely in a novel situation. It is central both to language use and language learning. The advantages in getting students to predict are:
a.       Build learner confidence by making them aware of their potential knowledge about language
b.      Enable the teacher to discover the gaps in knowledge, so that teaching can be made more relevant to needs
c.       Active learner’s mind and prepare it for learning
d.      Give students an ego investment to get students to predict so it will give a stronger motivation to proceed to the next step of the lesson.
4.      Enjoyment. It is the simplest way of engaging learner’s mind. It doesn’t matter how relevant a lesson may appear. If it is boring for learners, it is a bad lesson.
5.      An integrated methodology. By using a range of skills, it can greatly increase the range of activities possible in the classroom. This makes it easier to achieve a high degree of recycling and reinforcement, while maintaining the learner’s interest.
6.      Coherence. Each stage of the lesson should build on previous stages and lead naturally into the following stages.
7.      Preparation. Prepare the learners to learn as well as prepare the teacher to teach.
8.      Involvement. Learners need to be involved both cognitively and emotionally in the lesson. One of the simplest ways is by asking questions. Do not tell learners thing they know already. There are two words of warning:
a.       Do not ask question that is difficult to be answered, such as defining questions like “What is an experiment?”
b.      Wait for the answers. Learners should feel that their contribution is valuable.
9.      Creativity. Activities should allow for different possible answers as well as different levels of response. Different does not mean wrong (Stevick, 1982)
10.  Atmosphere. The cultivation of a cooperative social climate within the classroom is very important, such as the relationship between teacher and students.
ATTACHMENT

  • Model lesson 1
     

 













 
  •  Model Lesson 2
 

























  • Model Lesson 3